03432nas a2200301   4500000000100000008004100001260004400042653001800086653001700104653001700121653002200138653002700160100001500187700001500202700002200217700001700239700001900256700001500275700001900290700001400309700001200323245014800335856008400483300000700567490000700574520253500581022001403116       2025                            d  bSpringer Science and Business Media LLC10aLeishmaniasis10aEpidemiology10aRisk factors10aSystematic review10aQuality data reporting1 aDuarte AGS1 aWerneck GL1 ade Farias Lelis S1 aMendonça TS1 aVasconcelos DD1 aGontijo TS1 ados Santos ÁO1 aDonato LE1 aBelo VS00aAn updated systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression of the factors associated with human visceral leishmaniasis in the Americas  uhttps://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s40249-025-01274-z.pdf  a220 v143 a<p><strong>Background:</strong> Human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a systemic disease with high case-fatality rates and a widespread distribution. Continuous evaluation of the risk factors for VL is essential to ensure the effective implementation of prevention and control measures. The present study reviews the factors associated with VL in the Americas.</p>

<p><strong>Methods:</strong> This systematic review updates a previous 2013 report by including cross-sectional, cohort and case-control studies published between July 2011 and April 2024. Associations between VL and risk factors were analyzed using random-effects meta-analysis, subgroup analysis, and meta-regression models. Studies were classified according to level of evidence using the GRADE approach and the evolution in the quality of investigations was assessed.</p>

<p><strong>Results:</strong> Forty-six studies were included in the review and 21 variables were evaluated in the meta-analyses. Combination of all study types revealed that men had greater chances of VL than women, but the association was strong and significant only in case-control studies. Although higher chances of VL in children and in households with dogs or chickens/other fowl were identified in case-control studies, an inverse association was observed in cross-sectional and cohort studies. Higher chances of VL were associated with poor economic/living conditions, individuals living in domiciles with backyards or with seropositive dogs, and individuals with prior contact with infected household members/relatives/neighbors. The level of evidence for associations of VL with sex and age was classified as moderate whilst that for all other associations was either low or very low. The methodological quality of recent studies showed a positive progression but shortcomings were still evident regarding selection criteria and methods of data analysis.</p>

<p><strong>Conclusion:</strong> While there is a higher incidence of symptomatic VL among men and children, the likelihood of infection is similar between the groups. There is insufficient evidence to support the claim that the presence of dogs or fowl at the domicile increases the chances of VL. However, socioeconomic and living conditions, as well as previous occurrence of human and canine VL, are influential factors. Future research should be conducted with greater statistical power and using molecular diagnostic techniques, preferably involving cohort studies in diverse Latin American countries.</p>
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